Comprehensive Psychiatry
Volume 49, Issue 4 , Pages 374-379 , July 2008

Symptom characteristics and psychiatric comorbidity among males with muscle dysmorphia

  • Guy Cafri

      Affiliations

    • Department of Psychology, University of South Florida. Tampa, FL 33620-8200, USA
    • Corresponding Author InformationCorresponding author. Tel.: +1 813 974 0367; fax: +1 813 974 4617.
    • ,
  • Roberto Olivardia

      Affiliations

    • Department of Psychiatry, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02115-6092, USA
    • ,
  • J. Kevin Thompson

      Affiliations

    • Department of Psychology, University of South Florida. Tampa, FL 33620-8200, USA

References 

  1. Pope HG, Phillips KA, Olivardia R. The Adonis complex: the secret crisis of male body obsession. New York: Free Press; 2000;
  2. In:  Thompson JK,  Cafri G editor. The muscular ideal: psychological, social and medical perspectives. Washington (DC): American Psychological Association; 2007;
  3. Cafri G, Thompson JK, Ricciardelli L, McCabe M, Smolak L, Yesalis CE. Pursuit of the muscular ideal: physical and psychological consequences and putative risk factors. Clin Psy Rev. 2005;25:215–239
  4. Pope HG, Gruber AJ, Choi P, Olivardia R, Phillips KA. Muscle dysmorphia: an underrecognized form of body dysmorphic disorder. Psychosomatics. 1997;38:548–557
  5. Phillips KA, McElroy SL, Keck PE, Pope HG, Hudson JI. Body dysmorphic disorder: 30 cases of imagined ugliness. Am J Psychiatry. 1993;150:302–308
  6. Phillips KA, McElroy SL, Hudson JI, Pope HG. Body dysmorphic disorder: an obsessive-compulsive spectrum disorder, a form of affective spectrum disorder, or both. J Clin Psychiatry. 1995;56(Suppl 4):41–51
  7. Olivardia R, Pope HG, Hudson JI. Muscle dysmorphia in male weight lifters: a case-control study. Am J Psychiatry. 2000;157:1291–1296
  8. Pope HG, Gruber AJ, Mangweth B, Bureau B, deCol C, Jouvent R, et al. Body image perception among men in three countries. Am J Psychiatry. 2000;157:1297–1301
  9. Cafri G, Strauss J, Thompson JK. Male body image: satisfaction and its relationship to well-being using the somatomorphic matrix. Int J Ment Health. 2002;1:215–231
  10. Olivardia R, Pope HG, Borowiecki JJ, Cohane GH. Biceps and body image: the relationship between muscularity and self-esteem, depression, and eating disorder symptoms. Psychol Men Masc. 2004;5:112–120
  11. Pope HG, Olivardia R, Borowiecki JJ, Cohane GH. The growing commercial value of the male body: a longitudinal survey of advertising in women's magazines. Psychother Psychosom. 2001;70:189–192
  12. Leit RA, Pope HG, Gray JJ. Cultural expectations of masculinity in men: the evolution of Playgirl centerfolds. Int J Eat Disord. 2001;29:90–93
  13. Pope HG, Olivardia R, Gruber A, Borowiecki J. Evolving ideals of male body image as seen through action toys. Int J Eat Disord. 1999;26:65–72
  14. Jones DC. Body image among adolescent boys and girls: a longitudinal study. Dev Psy. 2004;40:823–835
  15. Leit RA, Gray JJ, Pope HG. The media's representation of the ideal male body: a cause for muscle dysmorphia. Int J Eat Disord. 2002;31:334–338
  16. Cafri G, Thompson JK. Measurement of the muscular ideal. In:  Thompson JK,  Cafri G editor. Pursuit of the muscular ideal: social, psychological and medical perspectives. Washington (DC): American Psychological Association; 2007;p. 107–120
  17. Cafri G, Thompson JK. Measuring male body image: a review of the current methodology. Psychol Men Masc. 2004;5:18–29
  18. Mayville SB, Williamson DA, White MA, Netemeyer R, Drab DL. Development of the muscle appearance satisfaction scale: a self-report measure for the assessment of muscle dysmorphia symptoms. Assessment. 2002;9:351–360
  19. Cafri G, Blevins N, Thompson JK. Drive for muscle leanness: a complex case with features of muscle dysmorphia and eating disorders not otherwise specified. Eat Weight Dis. 2007;11:117–188
  20. Ung EK, Fones CS, Ang AW. Muscle dysmorphia in a young Chinese male. Ann Acad Med Singapore. 2000;29:135–137
  21. Phillips K, O'Sullivan RL, Pope HG. Muscle dysmorphia. J Clin Psychiatry. 1997;58:361
  22. Pope HG, Katz DL, Hudson JI. Anorexia nervosa and “reverse anorexia” among 108 male bodybuilders. Compr Psychiatry. 1993;34:406–409
  23. Pope CG, Pope HG, Menard W, Fay C, Olivardia R, Phillips KA. Clinical features of muscle dysmorphia among males with body dysmorphic disorder. Body Image. 2005;2:395–400
  24. Chung B. Muscle dysmorphia in weight lifters. Br J Sports Med. 2003;37:280–281
  25. Hildebrandt T, Langenbucher J, Schlundt DG. Muscularity concerns among men: development of attitudinal and perceptual measures. Body Image. 2004;1:169–181
  26. Phillips KA. The broken mirror: understanding and treating body dysmorphic disorder. New York: Oxford University Press; 1996;
  27. Phillips KA, Hollander E, Rasmussen SA, Aronowitz BR, DeCaria C, Goodman WK. A severity rating scale for body dysmorphic disorder: development, reliability, and validity of a modified version of the Yale-Brown Obsessive Compulsive Scale. Psychopharmacol Bull. 1997;33:17–22
  28. First MB, Spitzer RL, Gibbon M, Williams JBW. Structured clinical interview for DSM-IV-TR axis I disorders, research version, non-patient edition. (SCID-I/NP). New York: Biometrics Research, New York State Psychiatric Institute; 2002;
  29. Sankoh AJ, Huque MF, Dubey SD. Some comments on frequently used multiple end point adjustment methods in clinical trials. Stat Med. 1997;16:2529–2542
  30. Cohen J. Statistical power analysis for the behavioral sciences. Hillsdale (NJ): Lawrence Erlbaum; 1988;
  31. Pope HG, Katz DL. Psychiatric and medical effects of anabolic-androgenic steroid use: a controlled study of 160 athletes. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 1994;51:375–382
  32. Kraemer HC, Wilson KA, Hayward C. Lifetime prevalence and pseudocomorbidity in psychiatric research. Arch J Psychiatry. 2006;63:604–608

 This study was funded in part by an internal award from the University of South Florida (Tampa, Fla) (JK Thompson).

PII: S0010-440X(08)00009-6

doi: 10.1016/j.comppsych.2008.01.003

Comprehensive Psychiatry
Volume 49, Issue 4 , Pages 374-379 , July 2008

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