Comprehensive Psychiatry
Volume 47, Issue 2 , Pages 127-135 , March 2006

Presence of muscle dysmorphia symptomology among male weightlifters

  • Tom Hildebrandt

      Affiliations

    • Department of Psychiatry, University of Medicine and Dentistry of New Jersey/Robert Wood Johnson Medical School, Piscataway, NJ 08854, USA
    • Corresponding Author InformationCorresponding author.
    • ,
  • David Schlundt

      Affiliations

    • Department of Psychology Vanderbilt University, Nashville, TN 77203, USA
    • ,
  • James Langenbucher

      Affiliations

    • Center for Alcohol Studies, Rutgers, The State University of New Jersey, Piscataway, NJ 08554, USA
    • ,
  • Tammy Chung

      Affiliations

    • Department of Psychiatry, University of Pittsburgh Medical Center, Western Psychiatric Institute and Clinic, Pittsburgh, PA 15213, USA

References 

  1. Sporting Goods Manufacturers . Weight and resistance machine participation report 2004. Sporting Goods Manufacturers Association: available online at http://www.sgma.com[Retrieved online October, 2004]
  2. Blouin AG, Goldfield GS. Body image and steroid use in male bodybuilders. Int J Eat Disord. 1995;18:159–165
  3. Kleiner SM, Bazzarre TL, Litchford MD. Metabolic profiles, diet, and health practices of championship male and female bodybuilders. J Am Diet Assoc. 1990;90:962–967
  4. Lindstrom M, Nilsson AL, Katzman PL, Janzon L, Dymling JF. Use of anabolic-androgenic steroids among body builders—frequency and attitudes. J Intern Med. 1990;227:407–411
  5. Pope HG, Katz DL, Hudson JI. Anorexia nervosa and “reverse anorexia” among 108 male bodybuilders. Compr Psychiatry. 1993;34:406–409
  6. Mangweth B, Pope HG, Kemmler G, Ebenbichler C, Hausmann A, De Col C, et al. Body image and psychopathology in male bodybuilders. Psychother Psychosom. 2001;70:38–43
  7. Pope HG, Gruber AJ, Choi P, Olivardia R, Phillips KA. Muscle dysmorphia. An underrecognized form of body dysmorphic disorder. Psychosomatics. 1997;38:548–557
  8. Andersen RE, Barlett SJ, Morgan GD, Brownell KD. Weight loss, psychological, and nutritional patterns in competitive male body builders. Int J Eat Disord. 1995;18:49–57
  9. Thompson J, Heinberg LJ, Altabe M, Tantleff-Dunn S. Exacting beauty: theory, assessment, and treatment of body image disturbance. Washington (DC): American Psychological Association; 1999;
  10. Olivardia R, Pope HG, Hudson JI. Muscle dysmorphia in male weightlifters: a case-control study. Am J Psychiatry. 2000;157:1291–1296
  11. Chung B. Muscle dysmorphia: a critical review of the proposed criteria. Perspect Biol Med. 2001;44:565–574
  12. Phillips KA, Gunderson CG, Gopinath M, Mc Elroy SL, Carter W. A comparison study of body dysmorphic disorder and obsessive-compulsive disorder. J Clin Psychiatry. 1998;59:568–575
  13. Hollander E, Cohen LJ, Simeon . Body dysmorphic disorder. Psychiatr Ann. 1993;23:359–364
  14. Phillips KA, Mc Elroy SL, Keck PE, et al. A comparison of delusional and nondelusional body dysmorphic disorder in 100 cases. Pyschopharmacol Bull. 1994;30:179–186
  15. Bienvenu OJ, Samules JF, Riddle MA, et al. The relationship of obsessive-compulsive disorder to possible spectrum disorders: results from a family study. Biol Psychiatry. 2000;48:287–293
  16. Thiel A, Broocks A, Ohlmeier M, Jacoby GE, Schubler G. Obsessive-compulsive disorder among patients with anorexia nervosa and bulimia nervosa. Am J Psychiatry. 1995;152:72–75
  17. Thorton C, Russell J. Obsessive compulsive comorbidity in the dieting disorders. Int J Eat Disord. 1997;21:83–87
  18. Hudson JI, Pope HG, Jonas JM, Yurgelun-Todd D. Phenomenologic relationship of eating disorders to major affective disorders. Psychiatr Res. 1983;9:345–354
  19. Bulik CM, Sullivan PF, Fear JL, Joyce PR. Eating disorders and antecedent anxiety disorders: a controlled study. Acta Psychiatr Scand. 1997;96:101–107
  20. Albert U, Venturello S, Maina G, Ravizza L, Bogetto F. Bulimia nervosa with and without obsessive-compulsive syndromes. Compr Psychiatry. 2001;42:456–460
  21. Laessle RG, Wittchen HU, Fichter MM, Prike KM. The significance of subgroups of bulimia and anorexia nervosa: lifetime frequency of psychiatric disorders. Int J Eat Disord. 1989;8:569–574
  22. Grabe HJ, Thiel A, Freyberger HJ. Symptoms of eating disorders in obsessive-compulsive disorder. Acta Psychiatr Scand. 2000;102:449–453
  23. Keel PK, Fichter M, Quadflieg N, Bulik CM, Baxter MG, Thornton L, et al. Application of a latent class analysis to empirically define eating disorder phenotypes. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 2004;61:192–200
  24. Fink P, Ornbel E, Toft T, Christensen-Sparle K, Frothsolm L, Olesen F. A new, empirically established hypochondrias diagnosis. Am J Psychiatry. 2004;161:1680–1691
  25. Hildebrandt T, Langenbucher J, Schlundt DG. Muscularity concerns among men: development of attitudinal and perceptual measures. Body Image. 2004;2:169–181
  26. Garner D, Olmstead MP, Polivy J. Development and validation of a multidimensional eating disorder inventory for anorexia nervosa and bulimia. Int J Eat Disord. 1983;2:15–34
  27. Yelland C, Tiggemann M. Muscularity and the gay ideal: body dissatisfaction and disordered eating in homosexual men. Eat Behav. 2003;4:107–116
  28. Schoemaker C, Verbraak M, Breteler R, van der Staak C. The discriminant validity of the Eating Disorder Inventory–2. Br J Psychol. 1997;36:627–629
  29. Spillane NS, Boerner LM, Anderso KG, Smith GT. Comparability of the Eating Disorder Inventory–2 between women and men. Assessment. 2004;11:85–93
  30. Hart EA, Leary MR, Rejeski WJ. The measurement of physique anxiety. J Sport Exerc Psychol. 1989;11:94–104
  31. Martin KA, Rejeski WJ, Leary MR. Is the social physique anxiety scale really multidimensional? Conceptual and statistical arguments for a unidimensional model. J Sport Exerc Psychol. 1997;19:359–367
  32. Hodgson RJ, Rachman S. Obsessional-compulsive complaints. Behav Res Ther. 1977;15:389–395
  33. Phillips KA. The broken mirror. New York (NY): Oxford University Press; 1986;
  34. Muthén LK, Muthén B. Mplus user's guide. Los Angeles (Calif): Muthén and Muthén; 1998-2004;
  35. Schwarz G. Estimating the dimension of a model. Ann Stat. 1978;6:461–464
  36. Kouri EM, Pope HG, Katz DL, Olivia P. Fat-free mass index in users and nonusers of anabolic-androgenic steroids. Clin J Sport Med. 1995;5:223–228
  37. American Psychiatric Association . The diagnostic and statistics manual for mental disorders (DSM-IV). 4th ed.. Washington (DC): APA; 1994;
  38. Pickett TC, Lewis RJ, Cash TF. Men, muscles, and body image: comparisons of competitive bodybuilders, weight trainers, and athletically active controls. Br J Sports Med. 2005;39:217–222
  39. Drewnowski A, Kurth CL, Krahn DD. Effects of body image on dieting, exercise, and anabolic steroid use in adolescent males. Int J Eat Disord. 1995;17:381–386
  40. Olivardia R. Mirror, mirror on the wall, who's the largest of them all? The features and phenomenology of muscle dysmorphia. Harv Rev Psychiatry. 2001;9:254–259
  41. Betz NE, Mintz L, Speakmon G. Gender differences in the accuracy of self-reported weight. Sex Roles. 1994;30:543–552
  42. Shapiro JR, Anderson DA. The effects of restraint, gender, and body mass index on the accuracy of self-reported weight. Int J Eat Disord. 2003;34:177–180

☆ This data set also appears in Hildebrandt et al (Body Image 2004;2:169-81) in conjunction with 2 other studies supporting reliability and validity of the Bodybuilder Image Grid and Muscle Dysmorphic Disorder Inventory.

PII: S0010-440X(05)00073-8

doi: 10.1016/j.comppsych.2005.06.001

Comprehensive Psychiatry
Volume 47, Issue 2 , Pages 127-135 , March 2006

Article Tools